S HO R T R E PO R T
Multi-isotope analysis of primary and secondary dentin as a
mean to broaden intra-life dietary reconstruction. A case from
Longobard Italy
Sara Bernardini1,2 | Carlotta Zeppilli2 | Ileana Micarelli3 |
Gwenaëlle Goude1 | Kerry L. Sayle4 | Giorgio Manzi2 | Mary Anne Tafuri2
1Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Minist Culture,
LAMPEA, Aix-en-Provence, France
2Department of Environmental Biology,
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
3McDonald Institute for Archaeological
Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
UK
4Scottish Universities Environmental Research
Centre, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park,
East Kilbride, UK
Correspondence
Mary Anne Tafuri, Department of
Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of
Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome,
Italy.
Email: maryanne.tafuri@uniroma1.it
Funding information
“Population biology, diseases and mobility:
Romans and Longobards in the post-classical
era”, Grande Progetto Sapienza 2018,
Grant/Award Number: RG118164364E4CB5
Abstract
This exploratory study proposes an original intra-life history investigation through
sequential analysis of the isotopic composition of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur (CNS)
on both primary and secondary dentin of a tooth (M1). We focus on an elderly
woman from Longobard Italy (6th to 8th c. CE), who showed an unprecedented case
of cranial surgery, presented in a companion paper by Micarelli and colleagues.
Sequential stable CNS isotope composition of first molar dentin collagen allows us to
infer diet, mobility, health, and physiological stress between approximately 3 months
after birth to 9.5 years old (primary dentin) and between early adulthood until death
(secondary dentin). Isotopic results on primary dentin highlight the following: (i) a
long weaning period (ending at approximately 4 years), followed by (ii) a specific diet,
including the contribution of C4 crops in early childhood (approximately 5.5 years),
possibly concomitant with mobility. While secondary dentin shows a generally homo-
geneous diet during adulthood, the longitudinal analysis provided information on spe-
cific stresses that likely occurred in periods of difficult health conditions. This work
emphasizes the importance of measuring complete dentin sequences (including sec-
ondary when present) for isotopic analysis to broaden intra-life histories in ancient
populations.
K E YWORD S
carbon, isobiography, nitrogen, postclassical antiquity, stable isotopes analysis, sulfur
1 | INTRODUCTION
Recently, palaeodietary reconstructions by means of stable isotope
analysis (δ13C, δ15N, δ34S) of incremental dentin microsections proved
to be relevant in exploring intra-life histories of past populations while
highlighting specific cultural phenomena (e.g., weaning practices and
early-life mobility) (e.g., Cocozza et al., 2021; Fernández-Crespo
et al., 2020; Goude et al., 2020).
During permanent tooth development, primary dentin formation
follows a relatively constant crown-to-apex deposition (4 to 6 μm per
day according to tooth area) (Dean & Scandrett, 1995), providing a
time interval for each microsection. Dentin isotopic data correspond
to childhood dietary habits, while bone data correspond to the last
decades of life, depending on the bone turnover rate. Although bone
and teeth are not strictly comparable due to different physiology of
tissue formation (Beaumont et al., 2018), their stable isotope
Received: 5 September 2022 Revised: 23 November 2022 Accepted: 12 January 2023
DOI: 10.1002/oa.3200
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
© 2023 The Authors. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2023;1–6. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa 1
composition has often been used to reconstruct intra-life dietary
changes. However, when this approach is applied to mature individ-
uals, it generates an isotopic “gap” between the end of childhood and
the last years of life: decades of dietary intake that are invisible to the
isotopic investigation.
This study deals with a stable isotope analysis of secondary den-
tin microsections, with the aim to broaden the interval of life-long die-
tary studies.
Secondary dentin is a dental tissue which begins to form after
apex closure in a nonhomogeneous continuous deposition during life
(Nanci, 2013). In permanent molars, the pulp cavity is progressively
filled starting from the coronal area. Its thickness is mainly correlated
to age and force distribution along the tooth and seems to act as a
compensatory mechanism against mechanical loading (Nudel
et al., 2021). Currently, this tissue is removed prior to incremental
dentin analysis to avoid intrusive adulthood data in early-life dietary
reconstruction (Scharlotta et al., 2018). Since M1 is the first perma-
nent tooth to develop, it accounts for the longest bio-physiological
information when considering both primary and secondary dentin.
A life-long dietary analysis is developed on an exceptional archeo-
logical case study from a Longobard Italian skeletal collection (Castel
Trosino, 6th-8th c. CE, in Ascoli Piceno, central Italy) (Micarelli
et al., 2021). The individual (CT1953), an elderly woman represented
only by her cranium, was subjected to an unprecedented case of
trepanation, discussed in a companion paper (Micarelli et al., submitted).
Maxillary teeth show ongoing diseases: periodontal disorders, acute
abscesses (RI1, RI2, LI2), and severe molars wear associated with tooth
loss (RM3). The trepanation process and the oral pathologies could have
somehow influenced food habits.
2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
In this study, we analyze stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotopes
on primary and secondary dentin collagen microsections of a non-
pathological molar (ULM1) belonging to the individual illustrated in the
companion paper by Micarelli and colleagues (submitted).
Following ethical principles in bioarcheology and cultural heritage
conservation, a micro-CT scan of the selected tooth was performed
before sampling (Figure 1a). This allowed age estimation by pulp
chamber volume measurement following the method proposed by Ge
et al. (2015) (Figure 1b and Method S1).
Tooth sampling followed a modified Beaumont et al. (2013)
method (Figure 1c and Method S2). Dentin collagen for stable carbon,
nitrogen, and sulfur isotopes analysis was extracted with a modified
ABA method (Method S2).
Age assignment of primary dentin microsections (n = 14) was cal-
culated by applying Czermak et al.'s (2020) method (Method S2 and
F IGURE 1 (a) Micro-CT scan of CT1953
first molar, distal view; (b) 3D image of
CT1953 pulp cavity volume (distal); (c) tooth
slice after chemical treatment with indication
of the anatomical area and
microsection sampling scheme. In white
primary dentin microsections, in black
secondary dentin sections; (d) tooth slice with
the proposed scheme of secondary dentin
microsampling. Numbers represent possible
sequence considering inwards dentin
deposition. [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
2 BERNARDINI ET AL.
Data S1). Accurate age correlation of secondary dentin microsections
could be aleatory considering its less uniform deposition (Method S2).
Therefore, the five microsections of secondary dentin (Figure 1c) rep-
resent the dietary variation from the end of tooth formation to the
estimated age of death (
10 to 50 years old). Not knowing the dietary
representativity of each microsection, data from the pulp chamber
samples (n = 2) have been merged and mean values considered
(Figure 2a and Data S1), although individual measurements are
reported for clarity (Figure 2b).
Considering the inward formation of secondary dentin, we pro-
pose here an alternative sampling procedure, which might allow a
finer longitudinal dietary reconstruction (Figure 1d).
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data of bone collagen samples
available from the same collection (n = 18, including CT1953)
(Bernardini et al., 2021) have been used as a reference for the incre-
mental dentin data interpretation.
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The measurement of pulp chamber volume from Micro-CT scan
images allowed us to estimate an age at death between 41 and
50 years old (Ge et al., 2015) (Method S1), confirming the estimates
based on the observation of the cranium sutures and dental wear
(approximately 50 years old) (Micarelli et al., 2021, submitted).
Analytical data and calibration of stable isotope measurements
are reported in Method S2. The measurements errors are 0.1‰ for
both δ13C and δ15N and 0.4‰ for δ34S (Method S2).
Stable isotope incremental dentin results from approximately
1.1–1.9 years and from two secondary dentin sections were excluded
from this analysis, as the data did not meet the collagen quality indica-
tors (DeNiro, 1985; Nehlich & Richards, 2009; van Klinken, 1999)
(Data S1 and Method S2).
Isotopic results from CT1953's first years of life show a moment
of dietary transition, likely associated with weaning. The transition
from breastfeeding to solid food is generally represented by a con-
stant decline in both δ15N and δ13C values (e.g., Eerkens et al., 2011;
Sandberg et al., 2014).
Here, microsections from approximately 0.7 to 4 years show a
steep decline in the δ15N values by 
5‰, with δ13C only showing a
minimal decrease as expected (Figure 2a). The δ15N profile of CT1953
shows a significant drop that could be related to different factors.
These include (i) a rapid decrease in mother's milk consumption during
weaning, representing the most probable scenario, (ii) the rapid intro-
duction of solid food with low δ15N (vegetal resources), and (iii) not to
exclude, a change in the mother's diet and/or physiological changes
during breastfeeding, as proposed elsewhere (Herrscher et al., 2017).
In these four first years of life, δ34S values oscillate from 4.5‰ to
6.2‰, reflecting a possible movement between different environ-
ments before the age of 5 (Figure 2a and Data S1). This could also be
associated with breastfeeding by a woman of different origins (e.g., a
wet nurse) (Mummey & Reyerson, 2011) or displacement during
early-life. In Late Medieval Europe, sources report that children could
be sent to the countryside for nursing (Mummey & Reyerson, 2011).
Weaning time varies according to culture, mother and child
health, and wealth status (e.g., Humphrey, 2010; McDade &
Worthman, 1998). For the Early Middle Ages, no written sources on
breastfeeding duration are available, and the few mentions of wet
nurses are associated with wealthy families (Barbiera & Dalla
Zuanna, 2007). The trepanation events and her tomb position
(Micarelli et al., submitted) suggest a privileged condition of this
woman. Studies on Italian skeletal collections from the 4th c. CE
onwards, throughout the Early Middle Ages, have recorded physiolog-
ical stresses caused by weaning (i.e., linear enamel hypoplasia, LEH)
between the age of 3 and 4.5 (Barbiera & Dalla Zuanna, 2007). We
recorded no signs of LEH on CT1953's teeth. Although it is unknown
how severe stress has to be to produce enamel defects, CT1953 sur-
vived childhood and reached adult age with isotopic values consistent
with those of the other adults analyzed at Castel Trosino (Bernardini
et al., 2021).
After weaning, isotopic carbon and sulfur values suggest a dietary
shift at approximately 5 years, parallel to childhood mobility
(Figure 2a). The highest δ13C value (16.3‰) (Data S1) recorded at
approximately 5.5 years might be indicative of C4 plants consumption,
possibly millet and/or sorghum, which are crops known for their toler-
ance to drought and poor soils. The spread of these plants has been
associated with the Longobard arrival in northern Italy (Iacumin
et al., 2014). This low-quality crop is not suitable for breadmaking, but
in the Early Middle Ages, it was ideal for soup and porridge-like meals
(Guglielmetti, 2014; Iacumin et al., 2014). The consumption of C4-
based gruels for CT1953 may be linked to her early-life displacement
in an area where the reliance on C4 crops had already taken place. It is
noteworthy that δ15N values do not vary in this age-range (Figure 2a);
therefore, the peak in δ13C should be related to dietary change rather
than nutritional stress, which would have caused a parallel increase in
δ15N values (e.g., Reitsema, 2013). The intake of marine resources is
also excluded. A consumption of seafood would have resulted in13C,
15N, and 34S enrichment due to the longer trophic chain and the
higher carbon and sulfur δ-values of the sources in this ecosystem
(e.g., Nehlich, 2015; Schoeninger & DeNiro, 1984).
A progressive decrease in carbon values is observed in later child-
hood, reaching the lowest δ13C (19.1‰) at approximately 8.7 years,
with the subsequent profile reflecting that of the very first years of
life (Figure 2a and Data S1).
Isotopic values from 7 years onwards show a homogenous trend,
with no further changes until the last moment of life (δ15N mean: 9.6
± 0.2‰; δ13C mean: 18.4 ± 0.5‰; δ34S mean: 6.6 ± 0.2‰, n = 6).
When looking at secondary dentin, there is a gradual decrease in
δ13C and δ15N values from the end of tooth formation (approximately
9.5 years) to death (Figure 2a). Mean values are consistent with data
registered in later childhood for primary dentin (Figure 2a). Values
measured in the apex section (Figure 1c) show a drop in both carbon
and nitrogen, which are consistent with the bone data (Figure 2a and
Data S1).
BERNARDINI ET AL. 3
Considering secondary dentin sections singularly, pulp chamber
data show an increase in nitrogen (+1‰) compared with primary den-
tin apex values, while carbon and sulfur data are consistent with the
latest primary dentin data (Figure 2b and Data S1). δ34S values
increase (+1‰) in the section showing a parallel nitrogen decrease
(Figure 2b and Data S1). From pulp to apex values, nitrogen drops by
approximately 2‰, with a trend previously observed in case of physi-
ological or nutritional stress (Beaumont & Montgomery, 2016). The
severe ongoing dental disease may have limited CT1953 ability to eat
a varied diet, possibly reflected in the gradual descending δ13C and
F IGURE 2 Isotopic profiles of δ13C, δ15N, and δ34S of CT1953 dentin collagen microsections according to sampling sequence and reported
on the x-axis as estimated mean age intervals (Data S1). Error bars represent the mean error (0.3) on the estimated age intervals for each primary
dentin microsection (ranging from 0.1 to 0.4). The orange area corresponds to secondary dentin values; blue area corresponds to bone values.
Isotopic nitrogen (blue) and carbon (green) values from human bone available from Castel Trosino cemetery (Bernardini et al., 2021) are reported
as median; bars indicate values dispersion (min. and max. values). For secondary dentin, we report mean values (a) and individual values (b).
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
4 BERNARDINI ET AL.
δ15N values during adulthood. Yet, her later protein intake (bone
values) is similar to that of the other adults (Bernardini et al., 2021)
(Data S1). It is worth noting that the trepanation, or the situation
which led to it, could have strongly affected the woman's metabo-
lism/physiology (e.g., Giuffra & Fornaciari, 2017; Goude et al., 2020).
Whether dietary or physiological stress is responsible for the iso-
topic values recorded for secondary dentin, these were able to high-
light short-term variation, a change otherwise invisible in bone
collagen. Indeed, we suggest considering secondary dentin analysis in
long-life dietary studies.
4 | LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The limit of this study relies on the difficulty of an accurate age
assignment for secondary dentin sections due to its nonhomogeneous
deposition driven by mechanical loading (Nanci, 2013; Nudel
et al., 2021). An alternative sampling scheme is proposed in this paper,
which can be applied when enough material is available. The lack of
similar multi-isotopes analyses at the intra-population level (i.e., on
the other crania from Castel Trosino) and inter-population level
(i.e., Longobard contexts in Italy) limited the data interpretation as
well. Complementary investigations of both bone and dental tissues
from Italian Early Middle Age contexts are needed to evaluate
whether the practices documented in CT1953 are related to a particu-
lar social status or reflect specific habits of the Italian Longobard
community.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. Rossella Bedini and Ing. Raffaella Pecci of the Istituto
Superiore di Sanità in Rome (IT) for acquiring the tooth Micro-CT
scans. We are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for the useful
suggestions that improved this manuscript. This study does not
involve any modern human or animal subject. Open Access Funding
provided by Universita degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza within the
CRUI-CARE Agreement.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no competing interests.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available in the
supporting information of this article.
ORCID
Sara Bernardini https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7283-6323
Carlotta Zeppilli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8714-7317
Ileana Micarelli https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7498-5218
Gwenaëlle Goude https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3008-3607
Kerry L. Sayle https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3492-5979
Giorgio Manzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8611-1371
Mary Anne Tafuri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2913-7225
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional supporting information can be found online in the Support-
ing Information section at the end of this article.
How to cite this article: Bernardini, S., Zeppilli, C., Micarelli, I.,
Goude, G., Sayle, K. L., Manzi, G., & Tafuri, M. A. (2023).
Multi-isotope analysis of primary and secondary dentin as a
mean to broaden intra-life dietary reconstruction. A case from
Longobard Italy. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3200
6 BERNARDINI ET AL.